This article will present an overview and infographics of the historic Apollo Program, also named the Apollo Project.
Furthermore, you will also find links to more in-depth facts about each mission, including crew pictures and infographics.
The Apollo Program (1963 – 1972) was designed to land humans on the Moon and safely return them to Earth.
With this post, all the missions and costs will be summarized from that program. Enjoy this Apollo guide.
For a deeper dive into the iconic Apollo Program, check out our comprehensive Complete Guide to the Apollo Program.
List of those who had major management responsibilities for manned spaceflight in the 1960s.
Over a quarter of a million people were responsible for the Apollo mission and the flights to follow.
Within this team were numerous leaders from universities, industry, and the government.
Below are those in NASA with significant management responsibilities who deserve great credit, including the following:
- Keith Glennan formed NASA and pushed it hard.
- Jim Webb kept an umbrella over our heads even in stormy times.
- Hugh Dryden was a valued scientist who understood the machinations of government.
- George Mueller brought new ideas and experienced personnel to NASA with steely-eyed precision.
- Joe Shea shifted John Houbolt’s lunar orbit rendezvous onto the front burner and managed the spacecraft development.
- George Low began early in the program and stayed late, holding many key assignments.
- Sam Phillips, the former project leader of the Minuteman ICBM, whose experience in juggling many balls was essential to success.
- Abe Silverstein helped get Apollo off to a fast start and assisted in his Director’s role at Lewis Research Center.
- Tommy Thompson spawned the Space Task Group and chaired the Apollo accident review board.
- Eberhard Ress was the general manager who made Wernher von Braun’s visions come true.
- Rocco Petrone was responsible for the zero stage of Apollo and the massive ground facilities at Kennedy Space Center.
- Edmund Buckley provided the necessary world communication network for tracking and data acquisition.
Here are some of the private companies that NASA contracted to produce various components of the Apollo spacecraft and related systems:
- Boeing – Responsible for the design and production of the Command and Service Module (CSM), the main spacecraft that carried the astronauts to the moon and back.
- North American Aviation (later North American Rockwell) – Responsible for the design and production of the Lunar Module (LM), the spacecraft that carried astronauts from the Apollo orbiter to the moon’s surface and back.
- Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation (later Northrop Grumman) – Responsible for the design and production of the Lunar Module.
- IBM – Responsible for developing the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), the computer system that controlled the spacecraft’s navigation, guidance, and propulsion systems.
- McDonnell Aircraft Corporation (later McDonnell Douglas, then Boeing) – Responsible for the design and production of the Command and Service Module.
- Hamilton Standard (later United Technologies) – Responsible for developing the environmental control system, which regulated temperature, pressure, and oxygen levels in the spacecraft.
- AC Spark Plug Division of General Motors (later Delco Electronics) – Responsible for developing the Apollo spacecraft’s electrical power system.
These are just a few of the companies involved in the Apollo program, and many others contributed to the development and production of various components and systems. The Apollo program was a massive effort involving thousands of people and companies and required close collaboration and coordination among all parties in order to be successful.
The leaders of the three Apollo Centers
- Which President initiated the Apollo Program? Wernher von Braun was the Director of Marshall Space Flight Center.
- Bob Gilruth was the Director of the Manned Spacecraft Center.
- Kurt Debus was the Director of the John F. Kennedy Space Center.
This might come as a surprise, but during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, the Apollo program was conceived as a follow-up to Project Mercury.
What Was Apollo’s Program’s Purpose?
Project Apollo’s Program’s purposes went beyond landing Americans on the Moon and returning them safely to Earth. They included:
- Completing preeminence in space for the United States.
- Establishing technology to meet other national interests in space.
- Developing the human capability to work in the lunar environment.
- Carrying out a program of scientific research on the Moon.
What was the number of NASA Apollo-era engineers’ ethnic distribution in total percent (%) from 1958 to 1970?
The following table provides a statistical summary of the number of NASA Apollo-era engineers’ ethnic distribution in total percent (%) from 1958-1970.
The Cost of the Apollo Program
The cost was $20.4 billion and is in terms of 1970’s dollars and corrected for inflation; the Apollo program’s total cost comes to about $109 billion in today’s money.
The infographic below shows the cost of vehicles and the operation cost.
What was the number of engineers in NASA from 1958-1970 gender distribution in total percent?
The following table provides a summary of the number of engineers in NASA from 1958-1970 in gender distribution in total percent.
The Goal of the Apollo Program
Apollo was a program run by NASA from the 1960s to the 1970s.
The goal of these missions was to get a man to the Moon before the Soviet Union.
Other goals of these missions were to further the Moon’s knowledge and develop man’s ability to work in a lunar environment.
Give yourself or a loved one a gift with this book “Rocket Ranch.” It’s about the Apollo and Saturn team at Kennedy Space Center.
You will learn the inside story of what it was like to be a part of Project Apollo.
Alphabetical Apollo Mission Types
NASA’s Apollo program required sequential testing of several major mission elements in the run-up to a human-crewed Moon landing.
Owen Maynard suggested an alphabetical list of major mission types in September 1967.
Two A-type missions conducted uncrewed tests of the CSM and the Saturn V rocket.
Furthermore, one B-type Apollo mission performed an uncrewed test of the Lunar Module.
The C-type mission was the first human-crewed flight of the CSM in Earth orbit. It was performed by Apollo 7.
This list was revised upon George Low’s proposal to commit a mission to an orbit around the Moon ahead of schedule.
An idea influenced by the CSM status as a proven craft and production delays of the Lunar Module.
The historic Apollo 8 mission, the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth orbit, was reclassified from its original task as a D-type mission.
A complete CSM/LM spacecraft test in Earth orbit, to a “C-prime” mission that would fly humans to the Moon.
Once finished, it precluded the need for the E-type objective of a medium Earth orbital test.
The D-type Apollo mission was instead performed by Apollo 9, the F-type mission.
Apollo 10 took the CSM/LM spacecraft to the Moon for final testing without landing.
Apollo 11 achieved the first lunar landing, the G-type mission, the central goal of the program.
The initial A-G list was expanded to include later mission types:
H-type missions were Apollo 12, 13 (planned), and 14 would perform precision landings.
And the following J-type missions—Apollo 15, 16, and 17—would conduct a meticulous scientific investigation.
The I-type objective, which called for a comprehensive lunar orbital study of the Moon, was incorporated into the J-type missions.
Summary of All Types of Apollo Missions
A-Type Mission
- Apollo 4 (also known as AS-501).
- Apollo 6
Both were “Unmanned flights of launch vehicles and the CSM, to show the capacity of their design and to certify safety for men.
B-Type Mission
- Apollo 5
It was an uncrewed flight of the LM to demonstrate its design’s adequacy and to certify its safety for the astronauts.
C-Type Mission
- Apollo 7
This was a Human-crewed flight to demonstrate the performance and operability of the CSM.
D-Type Mission
- Apollo 9
It was a Human-crewed flight of the complete lunar landing mission vehicle in low Earth orbit.
Menat to demonstrate the operability of all the equipment and (insofar as could be done in Earth orbit) perform the maneuvers involved in the ultimate mission.
E-Type Mission
- –
This was a Human-crewed flight of the complete lunar landing mission vehicle in Earth orbit to great distances from Earth.
F-Type Mission
- Apollo 10
This was a complete mission besides the final descent to and landing on the Moon’s surface.
G-Type Mission
- Apollo 11
The initial lunar landing mission.
H-Type Mission
- Apollo 12
- Apollo 13 (planned)
- Apollo 14
They were missions for precision manned lunar landing demonstrations and systematic explorations of the Moon.
I-Type Mission
- –
It was reserved for lunar survey missions but not used.
J-Type Mission
- Apollo 15
- Apollo 16
- Apollo 17
There were extensive scientific investigations of the Moon on the lunar surface and from lunar orbit.
What Were The Apollo Missions?
The two descending Apollo astronauts would land on the Moon in the Lunar Module LM, which would work as their home base during the mission on the surface.
Once on the Moon’s surface, the astronauts would then:
- Walk on the surface of the Moon.
- Collect Moon rocks and soil samples from the Moon.
- Take photos and videos on the Moon.
- Do science experiments on the Moon.
- Some would even drive the Lunar Rover Vehicle (LRV) – Apollo 15, 16, 17.
- And why not even hit golf balls on the Moon?
See all Apollo mission patch designs here.
What Was All Apollo Mission Spacecraft Names?
The first name in the list below is the Command Module, which stayed in lunar orbit. And the second name is the Lunar Module, which landed on the lunar surface.
- Apollo 7: N/A
- Apollo 8: N/A
- Apollo 9: Gumdrop and Spider
- Apollo 10: Charlie Brown and Snoopy
- Apollo 11: Columbia and Eagle
- Apollo 12: Yankee Clipper and Intrepid
- Apollo 13: Odyssey and Aquarius
- Apollo 14: Kitty Hawk and Antares
- Apollo 15: Endeavor and Falcon
- Apollo 16: Casper and Orion
- Apollo 17: America and Challenger
What happened to the Lunar Modules?
Some (Apollo 5,9,13) burned up in Earth’s atmosphere.
One (Apollo 10) is in orbit around the sun. Other LMs (Apollo 11,12,14,15 and 17) crash-landed on the Moon.
The infographic below shows the fate of all Apollo Program Lunar Modules except for Apollo 5, an unnamed LM, which burned up in Earth’s atmosphere.
What Was Apollo 1?
Apollo 1 was initially named Apollo Saturn-204 or AS-204.
And it was to be the program’s first crewed mission. It was supposed to orbit Earth with three astronauts aboard.
But tragedy struck on Jan. 27, 1967, when a fire ignited within the Apollo 1 command module while the crew was conducting a prelaunch test.
It never left Earth on the launch pad at Cape Kennedy.
While they struggled with death 218 feet above the ground, the crew followed their emergency procedures to the end.
The fires proved too much, increasing the internal temperature above 1,000 degrees inside the Apollo 1 capsule and consuming all of the oxygen inside.
All three astronauts were inside. Ed White, Gus Grissom, and Roger B. Chaffee died in the fire.
What were the changes to the Apollo spacecraft’s design after the accident?
Numerous changes were made to the design of the Apollo spacecraft to improve crew safety.
The ignitable oxygen environment for ground tests was replaced with a nitrogen-oxygen mix.
Combustible items were removed—new respect developed between the astronauts and the contractors regarding design changes, which were later implemented more effectively.
The door was especially completely redesigned to open in a few seconds if the crew needed to get out in a hurry.
Originally, the plan for naming the Apollo missions would be each trip. The Moon would be a distant Apollo number.
But after the failure of Apollo 1, the widows of the astronauts asked that they not reuse the name Apollo 1.
So, their husbands would always have their own slide. NASA agreed to do this. It looked like the Apollo Program might be over before it even began.
But the deaths instead pushed NASA to enhance astronaut safety requirements.
The agency put crewed missions on hold while reevaluating its systems to ensure they were safe enough to fly.
The astronauts of the Apollo 1 crew would be the only casualties of NASA’s drive to land a man on the Moon.
After this first disaster, NASA tested its capabilities and resolved outstanding safety issues with uncrewed missions dubbed AS-201, AS-202, AS-203, and Apollo missions 4 through 6.
If you’re interested in the history of space exploration, you might want to check out our article on the Apollo 1 Tragedy. In this piece, we take a deep dive into the fateful mission that claimed the lives of three NASA astronauts. Click here to learn more about this tragic event and its impact on the future of space travel.
What were Apollo 4 to Apollo 6 missions?
Apollo 4 to 6 was a crewless mission. The purpose of these flights was to ensure that they had the requirements needed to complete a lunar mission.
Overall, it was a success.
What was the Apollo 5 mission?
Apollo 5 was to test the lunar module to make sure things would go well during the ascent stage.
What was Apollo 6?
Apollo 6 was also known as AS-502. It launched on April 4, 1968.
This is the final test of the Saturn V launch vehicle, and it was rather unsuccessful.
The Apollo 6 flight was a success, even though two first-stage engines shut down too early.
Moreover, the third-stage engine failed to reignite after reaching orbit.
Even though the engine failed, the flight provided NASA with full determination to use the Saturn V for later crewed launches.
Apollo 6 was the last of the uncrewed missions.
What was Apollo 7?
Crewed flights continued with Apollo 7. They launched on Oct. 11, 1968.
The mission consisted of three men orbiting Earth, spending overall ten days and 20 hours in space, which is more than any Soviet Union mission.
Aboard Apollo 7, the crew demonstrated the functionality of the service module and the command module.
The mission also showed how the mission-support types of equipment could work together with the vehicles and the crewmembers.
They orbited Earth for more than a week and splashed back down on Oct. 22.
What was Apollo 8 about?
Apollo 8 was a significant step forward in the Apollo program.
It launched on Dec. 21, 1968, and ended on Dec 27, a week later.
The Apollo 8 mission was an essential testing ground for the spacecraft systems and navigation techniques NASA had produced for approaching and orbiting the Moon.
Apollo 8 crew is photographed posing on a Kennedy Space Center (KSC) simulator in their spacesuits. From left to right are James A. Lovell Jr., William A. Anders, and Frank Borman. Credit: NASA.
These systems and techniques made the planned lunar landing possible.
Apollo 8 was the first spacecraft to leave Earth’s orbit.
Apollo 8 was the first flight that took humans beyond low-Earth orbit to the Moon’s orbit and back again.
The crew left Earth’s orbit and went around the Moon ten times during this mission.
On this flight, William Alison Anders took the famous “Earthrise” pictures. Displaying the Earth seeming to hover above the Moon’s surface.
What was Apollo 9 about?
Apollo 9 launched on March 3, 1969. It ended just over a week later, on March 13, after orbiting Earth.
It was meant to demonstrate that the crew of space vehicle and mission support performance would perform well with a command module and a lunar module.
Previous missions only had a command module.
During this mission, the Apollo 9 astronauts tested all aspects and functionalities of the lunar module in Earth orbit.
They showed that the craft could operate independently as it completed its docking and rendezvous maneuvers.
These tests simulated what NASA assumed would happen during a lunar landing.
What Was Apollo 10 about?
Apollo 10 was a mission with the main purpose to do basically a run-through of Apollo 11 without actually landing on the Moon.
The Apollo 10 mission operated a command module and a service module dubbed “Charlie Brown.” And a lunar module that was known as “Snoopy.”
Apollo 10, which launched on May 18, 1969.
Two months before Apollo 11, it proved that the crew, the vehicles, and the mission-support facilities at NASA were prepared for a successful landing on the Moon.
It was a “dry run” for the lunar landing because the Apollo 10 astronauts performed all of the scheduled operations for Apollo 11 except for the real moon landing.
All of this speedy preparation paved the way for NASA to eventually launch the Apollo 11 mission, astonishingly less than a year after the first successful crewed Apollo flight.
They returned with many pictures and films of the Moon. Overall it was a success.
What Was Apollo 11 about?
The most famous of the Apollo missions was the Apollo 11.
It was the first time that man set foot on the Moon.
Almost 600 million people around the world watched when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left the first tracks on the lunar surface.
The landing signaled a historic milestone and the end of the Cold War and the space race between the Soviet Union and the U.S.
The Apollo program produced more missions and more landings.
But Apollo 11 considered an unparalleled victory for the U.S. The crew of Apollo 11 was Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins.
During the mission, they transmit television feeds to Earth, deploy a solar wind experiment, and complete an experiment to detect the moon plates.
And also to learn about the surface. They were also to take many pictures of the surface and to collect lunar moon samples.
It launched on July 16, 1969. Neil Armstrong took the first steps on the Moon.
They left medallions to the three astronauts who died in the Apollo 1 fire and the remembrance of two other cosmonauts who died in accidents.
They also left a silicon disk containing micro messages from 73 countries and, of course, an American flag.
Canada’s message was: “a man has reached out and touched the tranquil moon may that accomplishment allow the man to rediscover Earth and find peace there.”
What Was Apollo 12 about?
Apollo 12 also landed on the Moon. Their main objectives were to explore the Moon using the lunar module.
They were also to set up the Apollo lunar surface experiments package, which was to be left up there long-term to gather scientific and engineering data.
They also collected pieces of the surveyor three spacecraft, which had landed near their landing site.
What Was Apollo 13 about?
Apollo 13, besides being a movie starring Tom Hanks, is also one of the Apollo missions.
They were to land in a certain region of the Moon to complete experiments scientifically.
However, these experiments later had to be assigned to Apollo 14 due to an explosion.
The second oxygen tank was the cause of the explosion.
One of the astronauts had been instructed to stir the tank, which was done to agitate the cold liquid oxygen.
That procedure was called a “cryo stir” and was supposed to stop the supercold gas from settling into layers.
This later caused the tank to explode. The command module lost power fast, so the astronauts had to use the lunar module.
Unfortunately, the lunar module did not have enough carbon dioxide scrubbing canisters to keep the air breathable.
This was forcing the astronauts to improvise and build an adapter using spare parts.
Before they reached the Moon, the explosion took place, so they had to get into its orbit and sling themselves around to get back to Earth.
And to get back on the track, they had to fire the lunar module engine sometimes. And the crew did return to Earth safely.
What Was Apollo 14 about?
So, Apollo 14 was the eighth crewed mission in the Apollo program.
It was also the first to land in the lunar highlands and the third to land on the Moon.
The last of the “H missions” targeted landings with two-day stays on the lunar surface with two lunar moonwalks or EVAs (Extravehicular activity).
What Was Apollo 14-17 about?
Apollo missions 14 through 17 were more missions dedicated to exploring the Moon.
The completion of scientific experiments, photographing the Moon, and testing lunar equipment.
Read more about the fascinating Apollo 14 mission to the Moon here.
What Was Apollo 15 about?
Apollo 15 was the ninth crewed mission in the United States’ Apollo program and the fourth to land on the Moon.
It was the first of the J missions, with a more extended stay on the Moon and a more comprehensive focus on science than the first lunar landings.
Moreover, Apollo 15 saw the first use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle.
After Apollo 17, NASA canceled the Apollo ProgramApollo program due to budgeting and lack of public interest.
The public cared so much about Apollo 11, but after they kept sending more men to the Moon, they stopped finding it interesting.
What Was Apollo 16 about?
So, Apollo 16 was the tenth human-crewed mission in the Apollo space program.
And the fifth and second-to-last to land on the Moon, and the second to land in the lunar highlands.
NASA had planned three more trips to the Moon and a trip to Mars using Apollo equipment that, in the end, sadly never took place.
What Was Apollo 17 about?
Moreover, Apollo 17 was the final Moon landing mission of NASA’s Apollo program and remained the most recent time humans have traveled beyond low Earth orbit.
Which Of The NASA’s Apollo Missions Landed On The Moon?
Six Apollo missions landed on the Moon
The above-mentioned Apollo missions carried the 12 astronauts.
That’s how many humans have walked on the Moon, plus the astronaut who would orbit the Moon while this was occurring.
How many and who has walked on the lunar surface?
Twelve Apollo astronauts have walked on the Moon.
All crewed lunar landings happened between July 1969 and December 1972 as part of the Apollo program.
Below you will find a list of all the astronauts who walked on the lunar surface.
A illustrated guide to where Apollo landed the man on the Moon
Where did Apollo 11 LM land?
Landing Site: Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis) on July 20, 1969.
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, with crewmate Michael Collins in orbit.
On this exact spot, humankind first walked on another world when Armstrong climbed down the Lunar Module ladder on July 21, 1969.
“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”
– Neil Armstrong. At 10:56 p.m. ET on July 20, 1969.
As such, I suspect that this place on the Moon will, even more so than today, acquire almost sacred worship for humans in future millennia.
And, no matter where we might go in the future, this will become possibly the most famous place on any heavenly body.
Where on the Moon did Apollo 12 land?
Landing Site: Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum) on November 19, 1969.
Alan Bean and Charles ‘Pete’ Conrad. So, Just a few short months later, we were back on the Moon, and this time in the western hemisphere.
Conrad and Bean spent more than seven hours collecting samples at distances of hundreds of meters.
Where did Apollo 14 land?
Landing Site – Fra Mauro February 5 in 1971.
Edgar Mitchell and Alan Shepard. After the ill-fated Apollo 13 Moon mission, Apollo 14 mission became the third Moon landing near a small crater.
And this was the mission where Alan Shepard famously hit two golf balls on the Moon.
Where did Apollo 15 land?
Landing Site: Sea of Showers (Mare Imbrium) happened on July 30, 1971.
It was astronauts James Irwin and David Scott.
It was also the ninth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program and the fourth to land on the Moon.
So, for the first time on this moon mission. A lunar rover vehicle was used to cross several kilometers of terrain.
It was done in a scenically and geologically interesting area at the foothills of the Apennine Mountains.
Where did Apollo 16 land?
Landing Site – Descartes Highlands on April 21, 1972.
It was astronauts Charles Duke Jr. and John Young. And Apollo 16 landed in the highlands near a crater called Dolland.
So, Apollo 16 was the tenth human-crewed mission in the Apollo space program.
And the fifth and second-to-last to land on the Moon, and the second to land in the lunar highlands.
And again, a lunar rover was deployed, and three Moonwalks were made.
Where did Apollo 17 land?
Landing Site – the Taurus Mountains on December 11, 1972.
It was done with astronauts Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt.
Apollo 17 was the final moon landing mission of NASA’s Apollo program and remained the most recent time humans have traveled beyond low Earth orbit.
And this last moon mission landed the crew in a mountainous region on the southeastern rim of the Sea of Serenity.
And when they took off from the surface on December 14, the Apollo program of moon landings came to an end.
And one day, we will hopefully return. And it might be soon. Actually, in 2025, if everything works out.
Please check out this article showing the three companies that won NASA’s program to go back to the Moon. “NASA’s selection for Artemis Lunar Lander Mission.”
Who are the only three people to have flown to the Moon twice?
Eugene Cernan, Jim Lovell, and John Young are the only three people to have flown to the Moon twice.
Cernan and Young each set foot on the lunar surface during their respective second lunar missions.
Moreover, Lovell is the only person to have flown to the Moon twice without landing.
Which Apollo astronauts flew to the Moon without landing?
Besides the twelve people who have walked on the Moon, twelve more have flown to within 0.001 lunar distance of its surface.
One astronaut remained in lunar orbit during each of the six missions with successful lunar landings while the other two landed.
The three-man crews of Apollo 8 and Apollo 10 also entered lunar orbit.
Moreover, Apollo 13 looped around the Moon on a free-return trajectory.
Below are all Apollo missions’ launch dates and launch complex summarized;
Apollo 1
- 21 February 1967
- Launch Complex 34 (planned)
Apollo 7
- 11 October 1968
- 15:02 GMT
- Launch Complex 34
Apollo 8
- 21 December 1968
- 12:51 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 9
- 3 March 1969
- 16:00 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 10
- 18 May 1969
- 16:49 GMT
- Launch Complex 39B
Apollo 11
- 16 July 1969
- 13:32 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 12
- 14 November 1969
- 16:22 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 13
- 11 April 1970
- 19:13 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 14
- 31 January 1971
- 21:03 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 15
- 26 July 1971
- 13:34 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 16
- 16 April 1972
- 17:54 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
Apollo 17
- 7 December 1972
- 05:33 GMT
- Launch Complex 39A
What were Apollo landing-site geology profiles?
Prominent geological features found on the Moon’s surface include domes, maria, wrinkle ridges, rilles, and grabens.
Suppose you want to know more about the science experiments carried out on the lunar surface.
Then head over to this article called; Apollo 11 Science Experiments.
What was the Mobile Quarantine Facility? (MQF)
Credit: NASA.
The last step for the Moon astronauts of Apollo 11, 12, and 14 was an immediate stay inside the (MQF), the Mobile Quarantine Facility.
It was a converted Airstream trailer, from which they could begin sharing their historical missions with the citizens of the Moon’s very own planet — Earth.
That’s it. I hope you have enjoyed this short guide to NASA’s Apollo Program (1963 – 1972).
NASA’s Apollo project to take man to the Moon and back.
Apollo Program – 6 Surprising Facts
Thanks for reading this article. If you want to know more about the Apollo Program’s private contractors, helping send a man to the Moon. Then head over to this article called Apollo Program and Private Companies.